Anger is a medicine for melancholy.Originally Posted by Petter
Anger is a medicine for melancholy.
well-being (no fear/distress) <--> serotonin
excitement <--> dopamine
happiness <--> noradrenaline and oxytocin
(?)
To me, doing work causes stress, and doing nothing causes pleasure.
Doing as little as you can to get the biggest result and reward is the best deal.
https://newsroom.ucla.edu/releases/p...ppiness-244002
"What makes us happy? Family? Money? Love? How about a peptide?
The neurochemical changes underlying human emotions and social behavior are largely unknown. Now though, for the first time in humans, scientists at UCLA have measured the release of a specific peptide, a neurotransmitter called hypocretin, that greatly increased when subjects were happy but decreased when they were sad."
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3423791/
"The hypocretins/orexins are comprised of two neuroexcitatory peptides that are synthesized exclusively within a circumscribed region of the lateral hypothalamus. These peptides project widely throughout the brain and interact with a variety of regions involved in the regulation of arousal-related processes including those associated with motivated behavior. The current review focuses on emerging evidence indicating that the hypocretins influence reward and reinforcement processing via actions on the mesolimbic dopamine system. We discuss contemporary perspectives of hypocretin regulation of mesolimbic dopamine signaling in both drug free and drug states, as well as hypocretin regulation of behavioral responses to drugs of abuse, particularly as it relates to cocaine."
https://www.researchgate.net/publica...rotransmitters (Difference Between Neuropeptides and Neurotransmitters)
"Categorization of Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters are categorized into types based on the function; they are excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters. Excitatory neurotransmitters increase the trans-membrane ion flow, allowing the postsynaptic neuron to produce an action potential. In contrast, inhibitory neurotransmitters decrease the trans-membrane ion flow, prohibiting the postsynaptic neuron to produce an action potential. However, the overall effect of excitatory and inhibitory functions determines whether the postsynaptic neuron “fires” or not.
Acetylcholine, biogenic ammines, and amino acids are the three classes of neurotransmitters. Acetyl and choline are involved in the production of acetylcholine, which acts on the neuromuscular junctions. Biogenic amines found in the brain are involved in the emotional behavior of the animal. They include catecholamines like dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine (NE) and indolamines like serotonin and histamine. They also help to regulate the biological clock. The function of biogenic amines depends on the type of receptor they bind to. Glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are amino acid neurotransmitters. Glutamates act on the brain. Neuropeptides like endorphins and Substance P are strings of amino acids, which mediate pain signals."
"The main difference between neuropeptides and neurotransmitters is that neuropeptides are slow-acting and produce a prolonged action whereas neurotransmitters are fast-acting and produce a short-term response."
https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/b...ide-hypothesis (What is this thing called emotional experience? The peptide hypothesis.)
"The question of the nature of subjective emotional experience, or affect, remains a central issue in both psychology and philosophy, intimately related to the question of the nature of consciousness. My previous post reviewed evidence challenging theories stemming from William James' notion that emotional experiences involve the feeling of bodily changes Specifically, these theories cannot account for the sparing of emotional experience in spinal cord injuries, or for the speed and complexity of emotional experience. What, then, IS the source of emotional experience: the directly-known and self-evident qualia of feelings and desires? Is there a physiological process that is associated with such experience? A possible answer is surprising and controversial: a physiological process hypothesized to be closely identified with many emotional experiences involves specifiable neurochemical systems associated with some of the most ancient molecules in the body: the peptides. The peptide hypothesis can be stated succinctly: where there is a mood, there is a molecule."
J. H. J. Bancroft: "Peptides and monoamines are crucial to the emotional brain..."
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5424629/
"Within the brain, neuropeptides can modulate the activity of co-released neurotransmitters to either increase or decrease the strength of synaptic signaling. Within the periphery, neuropeptides can function similar to peptide hormones and modulate nearly all bodily functions."
"Neuropeptides broadly diffuse and act beyond the synapse
Distinguishing features of fast synaptic transmission versus neuropeptide transmission are shown. Classical small molecule transmitters, such as glutamate, are stored in clear synaptic vesicles, while peptides are stored in dense core vesicles. The synaptic vesicles are rapidly recycled and refilled with neurotransmitter close to the synaptic cleft. Once released, neuropeptides are not taken back up into the neuron, so dense core vesicles are not regenerated at the synapse. Instead, dense core vesicles are replenished by axonal transport of new vesicles from the cell body. In addition, dense core vesicles are released from non-synaptic sites as indicated. Once released, classical neurotransmitters bind to ion channel receptors (ionotropic receptors), while nearly all neuropeptides bind to G-protein coupled receptors. A major feature of neuropeptides is their ability to act by volume transmission due to diffusion over a relatively large distance from the point of release to act on targets far from the synapse." (Figure 2)
An Introduction to Neuroendocrinology (Michael Wilkinson and Richard E. Brown):
"As noted in Chapter 11, the human genome contains about 90 genes that encode neuropeptide precursors (pre-propeptides). The biologically active neuropeptide products of the prepropeptides number at least 100, and there are likely to be many more waiting to be discovered. Neuropeptides are synthesized in a wide variety of neurons in many brain regions and more often than not are co-localized and co-released with classical neurotransmitters. Should neuropeptides therefore be categorized as neurotransmitters? An alternative description is that of neuromodulator, since in many instances they modify the neural effects of classical neurotransmitters. A good example of this is shown in Figure 11.2, where co-release of a neuropeptide totally modifies the influence of the co-localized neurotransmitter on a postsynaptic neuron. This chapter will illustrate the neurotransmitter and neuromodulator actions of neuropeptides on the neuroendocrine system, the autonomic nervous system (ANS) and the central nervous system. First, however, we will explore whether neuropeptides are best described as neurotransmitters or neuromodulators, or both."
"What are neuropeptides in psychology?
Neuropeptides are a class of molecules that can modulate the activity of neurotransmitters to increase or decrease the strength of synaptic signalling. Different neuropeptides are involved in different brain functions such as reward, food intake, metabolism, reproduction, social behaviours, and learning."
Last edited by Petter; 09-11-2022 at 08:05 AM.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3990817/
"A well-balanced state of serotonin and norepinephrine leads to active socialization and normal sleep and appetite. A well-balanced state of serotonin and dopamine leads to satisfaction with achievement, normal sexual response, inhibition of overeating, and plasticity. A well-balanced state of norepinephrine and dopamine leads to newly seeking motivation.
An imbalance of these 3 neurotransmitters can lead to mood instability, unclear thoughts, and emotional instability. Imbalance of serotonin causes negative self-talk and rumination (self-reflect). An imbalance of norepinephrine can cause attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), obsessive and compulsive disorder (OCD), and depression. An imbalance of dopamine can cause hallucination, reward deficiency syndrome, additions, and anhedonia (inability to experience pleasure).
An unbalanced state of serotonin and norepinephrine can lead to anxiety and irritability. An unbalanced state of serotonin and dopamine can lead to aggressive dysphoria (an emotional state characterized by anxiety, depression, or unease). An unbalanced state of norepinephrine and dopamine can lead to impulsive talking and reward deficiency."
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles...017.00484/full
"The specific role of serotonin and its interplay with dopamine (DA) in adaptive, reward guided behavior as well as drug dependance, still remains elusive. Recently, novel methods allowed cell type specific anatomical, functional and interventional analyses of serotonergic and dopaminergic circuits, promising significant advancement in understanding their functional roles. Furthermore, it is increasingly recognized that co-release of neurotransmitters is functionally relevant, understanding of which is required in order to interpret results of pharmacological studies and their relationship to neural recordings. Here, we review recent animal studies employing such techniques with the aim to connect their results to effects observed in human pharmacological studies and subjective effects of drugs. It appears that the additive effect of serotonin and DA conveys significant reward related information and is subjectively highly euphorizing. Neither DA nor serotonin alone have such an effect. This coincides with optogenetically targeted recordings in mice, where the dopaminergic system codes reward prediction errors (PE), and the serotonergic system mainly unsigned PE. Overall, this pattern of results indicates that joint activity between both systems carries essential reward information and invites parallel investigation of both neurotransmitter systems."
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles...019.00334/full
"Overall DA and NA appear to have parallel effects on learning, brain state and reward processing."
"Reward or punishment related stimuli appear to activate catecholamine producing neurons in both LC and VTA."
Last edited by Petter; 07-18-2022 at 03:54 PM.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4060712/
"OXT administration is known to inhibit amygdala activity and results in a decrease of anxiety, whereas high amygdala activity and 5-HT dysregulation have been associated with increased anxiety. The present study reveals a previously unidentified form of interaction between these two systems in the human brain, i.e., the role of OXT in the inhibitory regulation of 5-HT signaling..."
https://my.clevelandclinic.org/healt...040-endorphins
"Endorphins and dopamine are both chemicals in your body that make you happy, but they function in different ways. Endorphins relieve pain naturally. When they attach to your brain’s reward centers (opiate receptors), dopamine is then released.
For example, endorphins will naturally help soothe a runner’s achy muscles. Then dopamine will be released, producing a runner’s high. Dopamine motivates you to do something over and over again. So endorphins and dopamine do work together."
PANIC/separation (distress, grief) = a lack of CARE
sadness = a lack of PLAY/joy
fatalism ("love surprises") = a lack of SEEKING/expectancy
(?)
Anger and fear are probably not opposite emotions.
relaxedness = a lack of FEAR (a threat)
calmness or satisfaction = a lack of RAGE/anger/frustration (an obstacle)
https://qz.com/678186/theres-a-neuro...-and-violence/
"David Anderson, a neurobiologist from California Institute of Technology, has published several papers showing that in mice and in fruit flies, triggers for sex and aggression come down to the same clusters of neurons."
"Why might the two be so closely connected? Anderson believes that sexual behavior may have led to a need for aggressive tendencies. The inter-male aggression he studies is typically used to fight for access to resources such as food, territory, or females. And aggression would allow animals to compete sexually. “Neurons that control sexual behavior might have given rise in evolution and development to neurons that control aggressive behavior,” says Anderson. If this were the case, it would explain the neurons’ physical proximity."
https://brainworldmagazine.com/the-i...jaak-panksepp/
"Brain World: What exactly is play?
Jaak Panksepp: I would say the only thing we can be sure about is the kind of physical play that animals enjoy. And, of course, we are animals, so our play is very similar. There is no ambiguity among young children; they instinctively know what play is. Academics get confused, parents get confused — calling what their children are doing “naughty,” “aggressive,” “being bad” — but kids are having fun, so we know that there is that one play system in the brain."
https://www.huffpost.com/entry/depre...g-sy_b_3616967
"In fact, for Panksepp, this SEEKING System is implicated in everything from our constant meaning-making (searching the environment for significant connections) to, in its excessive form, addictions. 'Check out a cocaine addict cruising for a new fix', Panksepp observed. Or someone addicted to the internet, going from one Google search to another. Dopamine is firing, keeping the human being in a constant state of alert expectation.
Typically it is not the reward that makes us feel euphoric, but the search itself.
The opposite of seeking: depression. That moping, listless, who-cares-about-anything feeling? You are no longer inspired to seek the environment to survive. The SEEKING system has shut down. It instinctually seems better to roll over and play dead. 'If you take the SEEKING system away', Panksepp commented. 'Your mental life is so compromised, you cannot live happily.' "
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7080740/
"Here we report that the rostral part of the nucleus accumbens (NAc) shell is strongly activated during the beginning of chocolate-induced cataplexy in orexin neuron-ablated mice."
"These results demonstrated that the rostral part of the NAc plays a crucial role in triggering cataplexy and hedonic orofacial movements. Since the NAc is also implicated in motivated behavior, we propose that the NAc is one of the key brain structures involved in happiness and is a driving force for positive emotion-related behaviors."
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannabinoid#Function
"The runner's high, the feeling of euphoria that sometimes accompanies aerobic exercise, has often been attributed to the release of endorphins, but newer research suggests that it might be due to endocannabinoids instead."
https://www.fundacion-canna.es/en/pu...ids-have-do-it
"The reason our cells have so many cannabinoid receptors is that we make our own cannabinoids, and they are vital to our overall well-being."
"Research into endocannabinoids provided insight into a brand new class of signaling molecules that seem to have a very broad spectrum of actions. They affect practically every cell type, tissue, and organ. The condition of our ECS also determines how we feel. Until this discovery, serotonin and endorphins were thought to be the “happy molecules”, known for their role in regulating and affecting emotional states. But the discovery of endocannabinoids revealed a new biochemical pathway to happiness. The name of the endocannabinoid anandamide itself (ananda is the Sanskrit word for “joy, bliss, happiness”) suggests its involvement in mood. Now research has also shown a strong connection between the serotonergic and endocannabinoid systems, pointing to a connection between the release of endocannabinoids and serotonin (Best and Regehr, 2008)."
"This proves a direct anatomical correlation between happiness and cannabinoids, as the brain regions sensitive to positive stimuli and stress have the highest density of cannabinoid receptors and are therefore most sensitive to endo- and phytocannabinoids."
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27618739/
"Cannabis enables and enhances the subjective sense of well-being by stimulating the endocannabinoid system (ECS), which plays a key role in modulating the response to stress, reward, and their interactions."
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anandamide
"The role of the endocannabinoid system on behavior and mood is still being researched. Both the CB1 and CB2 receptors (the bonding site of anandamide) seem to play a role in the identification of positive and negative interpretation of environment and setting. In animal models, anandamide plays a role in the interpretation of stimulus; specifically, optimism and pessimism in the presence of an ambiguous cue."
"This binding relationship of anandamide and the CB1/CB2 seems to play a role in neurotransmission of dopamine, serotonin, GABA, and glutamate."
"Anandamide injected directly into the forebrain reward-related brain structure nucleus accumbens enhances the pleasurable responses of rats to a rewarding sucrose taste, and enhances food intake as well. Increasing anandamide seems to increase the intrinsic value of food, not necessarily by stimulation of appetite or hunger."
Last edited by Petter; 08-30-2022 at 04:30 AM.
anger
1. social/sexual dominance ---> blame
2. an obstacle
3. an attack
https://www.health.harvard.edu/stayi...tress-response
"When someone experiences a stressful event, the amygdala, an area of the brain that contributes to emotional processing, sends a distress signal to the hypothalamus. This area of the brain functions like a command center, communicating with the rest of the body through the nervous system so that the person has the energy to fight or flee."
"After the amygdala sends a distress signal, the hypothalamus activates the sympathetic nervous system by sending signals through the autonomic nerves to the adrenal glands. These glands respond by pumping the hormone epinephrine (also known as adrenaline) into the bloodstream."
excitement (expectation of a reward) + an obstacle => anger"Fourth, frustration occurs when an individual continues to do an action in the expectation of a reward but does not actually receive that reward, and is associated with anger."
excitement (expectation of a reward) + not an obstacle => satisfaction
fear (expectation of punishment/pain) + an obstacle => relief
fear (expectation of punishment/pain) + not an obstacle => distress
https://www.verywellhealth.com/dienc...natomy-5072810
https://www.researchgate.net/publica...l_interactions
"The somatic marker hypothesis posits that perceiving emotions entails reenacting markers of self emotions, in particular in the autonomous nervous system. Well studied in decision-making tasks, it has not been tested in a social cognitive neuroscience framework, and in particular for the automatic processing of positive emotions during natural interactions. Here, we address this question using a unique corpus of brain activity recorded during unconstrained conversations between participants and a human or a humanoid robot. fMRI recordings are used to test whether activity in the most important brain regions in relation to the autonomic system, the amygdala, hypothalamus and insula, is affected by the level of happiness expressed by the human and robot agents. Results indicate that for the hypothalamus and the insula, in particular the anterior agranular region strongly involved in processing social emotions, activity in the right hemisphere increases with the level of happiness expressed by the human, but not the robot. Results indicate that perceiving positive emotions in social interactions induces the local brain responses predicted by the somatic marker hypothesis, but only when the interacting agent is a real human."
Last edited by Petter; 09-11-2022 at 09:36 AM.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleu...mbens#Aversion
"Activation of D1-type MSNs in the nucleus accumbens is involved in reward, whereas the activation of D2-type MSNs in the nucleus accumbens promotes aversion."
https://www.brainpost.co/weekly-brai...fear-to-safety
"This suggests that dopamine neuron activity engages this molecular process during fear extinction. They then examined whether dopamine release has different effects on fear extinction learning at different release sites. They found that specifically inhibiting nerve terminals in the nucleus accumbens (a brain region involved in reward) reduced fear extinction, whereas inhibiting terminals in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex enhanced fear extinction (i.e. rats more effectively reduced their fear response). This suggests that nucleus accumbens dopamine mediates (i.e. promotes) fear extinction, while dopamine in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex opposes fear extinction."
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caudat...irected_action
"non-invasive measures of anatomical and functional connectivity in humans demonstrate a clear link between the caudate and executive frontal areas."
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Putame...ate_circuit%22
Tentative studies have suggested that the putamen may play a role in the so-called "hate circuit" of the brain. A recent study was done in London by the department of cell and developmental biology at University College London. An fMRI was done on patients while they viewed a picture of people they hated and people who were "neutral". During the experiment, a "hate score" was recorded for each picture. The activity in sub-cortical areas of the brain implied that the "hate circuit" involves the putamen and the insula. It has been theorized that the "putamen plays a role in the perception of contempt and disgust, and may be part of the motor system that's mobilized to take action." It was also found that the amount of activity in the hate circuit correlates with the amount of hate a person declares, which could have legal implications concerning malicious crimes.
https://www.newscientist.com/article...ered-in-brain/
The results showed two brain regions that our “hate circuit” shares with the “love circuit” – the putamen and the insular cortex or insula.
The putamen is thought to be used to prepare the body for movement – so it’s possible this be active either to provide protection of the loved one, or to prepare for an aggressive or spiteful act from the hated one. The insula is associated with feelings of distress, such as jealousy.
However, there was also an important difference. The areas of the frontal cortex associated with judgement and reasoning are typically less active when viewing a lover compared to someone more neutral, meaning they are less likely to feel critical of their partner.
The hate-filled subjects, though, only showed a reduction in one small part of this area, while the rest was still active.
We may use this area to judge the consequences of our actions and to predict the behaviour of our nemesis, Zeki says. “In love, you take leave of your senses and go wild for that person, but in hatred it seems you must be all there to calculate your next move,” he says.
So both Lövheim's cube of emotion and my suggestions (thus far) seem to be inaccurate hypotheses.https://www.brainpost.co/weekly-brai...fear-to-safety
"This suggests that dopamine neuron activity engages this molecular process during fear extinction. They then examined whether dopamine release has different effects on fear extinction learning at different release sites. They found that specifically inhibiting nerve terminals in the nucleus accumbens (a brain region involved in reward) reduced fear extinction, whereas inhibiting terminals in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex enhanced fear extinction (i.e. rats more effectively reduced their fear response). This suggests that nucleus accumbens dopamine mediates (i.e. promotes) fear extinction, while dopamine in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex opposes fear extinction."
https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Moti...ube_of_emotion
https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1...1257119v1.full
Nearly a century ago, Dollard and colleagues proposed that some forms of aggression would appear in an inhibiting context, during which an object would interfere with goal attainment (Dollard, Miller, Doob, Mowrer, & Sears, 1939), therefore enhancing the risk for aggressive behaviors. In the following years, several researchers have criticized the mutually exclusive relationship between frustration and aggression, suggesting that frustration may lead to a general negative emotional state (e.g., neuroticism, sadness, anger) and not directly to aggression (Berkowitz, 1989). More precisely, it has been argued that such inhibiting events will lead to aggression if the former context causes sufficient negative affect to enable aggressive inclinations (Berkowitz, 1989). Despite the fact that it has been almost forgotten in current research, the Frustration-Aggression theory remains one of the most prominent theory of aggression.
Reward processing and loss aversion are inherent aspects of human motivation. Neurobiological research has shown a strong implication of ventral striatum, medial OFC/vmPFC and PCC/Precuneus in reward processes (Bartra, McGuire, & Kable, 2013; Liu, Hairston, Schrier, & Fan, 2011; Oldham et al., 2018), whereas punishment/loss processing is known to recruit anterior insula/vlPFC and lateral OFC (Bartra et al., 2013; Dugré, Dumais, Bitar, & Potvin, 2018; Liu et al., 2011; Oldham et al., 2018). Interestingly, receiving offers from someone who follows (or not) social norms may involve reward/punishment processes (7). Indeed, receiving fair monetary offers seems to recruit similar brain regions to those involved in reward processing (e.g., medial OFC/vmPFC, PCC/Precuneus) while receiving unfair monetary offers seems to recruit regions involved in punishment processng (aINS/vlPFC & lateral OFC), respectively (Feng, Luo, & Krueger, 2015). In fact, norm violations share several features with frustration. Indeed, given that we implicitly expect that others will follow social norms (e.g., fairness/reward) (Bicchieri & Chavez, 2010), norm violations (e.g., unfairness/frustration) act as a barrier to goal-directed behaviors. Additionally, both unexpected non-reward and norm violations elicit negative emotional responses. For instance, past researchers have found that receiving unfair monetary offers induce negative affect such as anger, sadness and feelings of being betrayed (Fatfouta, Meshi, Merkl, & Heekeren, 2018; Gradin et al., 2015; Paz et al., 2017). Furthermore, it has been shown that negative emotional arousal (e.g., sadness, anger & heightened skin conductance) further increases the risk of rejecting unfair offers (Harlé, Chang, van’t Wout, & Sanfey, 2012; Harlé & Sanfey, 2007; C. Liu, Chai, & Yu, 2016; Osumi & Ohira, 2010; van’t Wout, Chang, & Sanfey, 2010). On neurobiological grounds, it has also been observed that the activation of the anterior insula (during unfair offers) may mediate the relationship between negative emotions (i.e. sadness) and rejection rates (Harlé et al., 2012). Thus, in line with Berkowitz assumptions (1989), these results suggest that propensity towards retaliatory behaviors may be increased when the frustrative event give rises to heightened negative emotional responses. However, in the neuroscientific literature, the neural mechanisms elicited during frustrative events are largely unknown. In fact, frustration processing (or non-reward processing) has often been blurred by the dichotomous reward-punishment categorization and its overutilization as a baseline condition in fMRI task contrasts. Nonetheless, it may hide a particular series of actions involving the interaction between both reward and punishment processes.
In the last decade, frustration has been thought to be implicated in several psychopathologies that are at risk for aggressive behaviors (e.g., irritability, CD/ASPD, see (Bertsch, Florange, & Herpertz, 2020; Blair, 2010b; Harenski & Kiehl, 2010; Leibenluft, 2017)). Therefore, uncovering the neural bases of frustration processing is of great importance for our understanding of processes by which aggressive behaviors may likely arise. However, past meta-analyses did not produce reliable neurobiological markers of aggressive behaviors, potentially due to a substantial heterogeneity in the definition of aggression-related emotion and behavioral responses. For instance, a meta-analysis of fMRI studies on “state anger” (Puiu et al., 2020), which included a wide range of fMRI task contrasts (e.g., punishing others, rejecting unfair offers, retaliatory behaviors and passively reacting to provocation), revealed significant activations in the mPFC, pregenual ACC and right anterior insula. Similarly, another meta-analysis was conducted on “trait aggression” which included a variety of different tasks (e.g., theory of mind, passive viewing, working memory, probabilistic reversal task) with distinct psychiatric populations (e.g., schizophrenia, intermittent explosive disorder, antisocial personality disorder) and showed that only the precuneus emerged as significant cluster (Wong et al., 2019). The authors carried out an additional meta-analysis on “elicited aggression”, which was more precisely defined (e.g., Taylor aggression paradigm and Violent first-person shooter games), and the meta-analysis yielded activations in the postcentral gyrus (Wong et al., 2019). Finally, in a recent meta-analysis on “anger experience”, the authors have included heterogeneous fMRI task domains including retaliatory behaviors, social exclusion and anger imagery (Sorella, Grecucci, Piretti, & Job, 2021), revealing activations in bilateral insula/vlPFC. Despite that these major differences in definition may partially explain the discrepancies in brain regions, it nonetheless illustrates the importance of dissecting homogeneous constructs using theory-driven terminology.
Based on a literature review, Blair (2016) has suggested that impulsive aggression may involve interactions between acute threat response (i.e., amygdala, hypothalamus and periaqueductal gray [PAG]), the vmPFC and the mid-cingulo-insular network (i.e., dACC, aMCC/pre-SMA and bilateral fronto-insular cortex). The current study therefore aims to unveilthe neural bases of the frustration-aggression theory and provide meta-analytical support for a neurobiological model of frustration-based impulsive aggression. More precisely, we sought to examine to what extent the frustrative non-reward and retaliatory behaviors spatially overlapped altogether, in order to provide a model of how this series of actions operate at the neurobiological level.
I'd argue more for "Righteous Fury" over mere Anger/Rage as the antidote to melancholy.
Nothing gets you "over it" or "yourself" quite like a cause that makes sense and a clear and present evildoer in need of a heaping helping of Divine Justice. A moral crusade that's not only necessary but also cogent from a philosophical/logical standpoint. Pro tip: If you're experiencing melancholy you're probably addressing symptoms of how and why your life sucks over true causes.
Y'know, like the playboy who bangs 10 women in a night and still feels empty and unloved once it's all said and done. That's because he is the latter and feels empty because of it. Sex ain't true intimacy/love just by itself no matter what Hollywood tries to sell you. It may also mean you're probably on the wrong end of said "divine justice" I just mentioned. The greatest lies we tell are often to ourselves. Every villain is the hero of their own story after all yet deep down in their subconscious they know what they are and if it doesn't make them mad it makes them sad.
You've left out a rather important one called Vasopressin. It's related to bonds formed during times of stress when you both/the group you're in overcomes that situation together. Like if you shared a foxhole with someone while your position was getting shelled by enemy artillery with the full intent of blowing you both to bits. Or if you got into a survival situation with your girl or anyone else. Y'know, stuck in the middle of nowhere with only a knife and a flint to effect your way back to civilization long term and getting through the night right the hell now and somehow you both do exactly that. If you've ever wondered why two dudes can try to kill each other and then become brothers after earnestly trying to do that this is why.
It's a very primal bonding mechanism that predates Oxytocin and in many ways is stronger than it. Men are geared to bond that way whereas women are more geared to bond through Oxytocin. Both need both however. It's just that they go for that one in particular first and then seek out the other. If they get one but not the other from the object of their potential affections well, that's what unhappy and sexless marriages are made of.
I don't got the picture in front of me but there's a meme that really speaks to that last point. The text is: "Men only want one thing and it's fucking disgusting"
The Pic? A girl hugging a man in a very chaste and wholesome way. Like a mother comforting her child and/or giving physical affection that is in no way overtly sexual. That's Oxytocin. It's a thing most men never get on the regular. If you're a girl and you want your man to commit, try that one on him. Hug him and tell him how happy you are for everything he does for you. Bet money on this one: You'll probably make him cry. The good kind of crying mind you. Like if he just tasted the most delicious food ever or if he had beheld a sight so beautiful it, well, made him cry. No shame in that folks. It just proves you're human.
Last edited by End; 11-16-2022 at 05:23 AM.
https://news.mit.edu/2018/dopamine-b...e-anxiety-1107
Imagine a herd of deer grazing in the forest. Suddenly, a twig snaps nearby, and they look up from the grass. The thought of food is forgotten, and the animals are primed to respond to any threat that might appear.
MIT neuroscientists have now discovered a circuit that they believe controls the diversion of attention away from everyday pursuits, to focus on potential threats. They also found that dopamine is key to the process: It is released in the brain’s prefrontal cortex when danger is perceived, stimulating the prefrontal cortex to redirect its focus to a part of the brain that responds to threats.
“The prefrontal cortex has long been thought to be important for attention and higher cognitive functions — planning, prioritizing, decision-making. It’s as though dopamine is the signal that tells the router to switch over to sending information down the pathway for escape-related behavior,” says Kay Tye, an MIT associate professor of brain and cognitive sciences and a member of MIT’s Picower Institute for Learning and Memory.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LRc_W9xrLW8 (The Role of Dopamine in Reward and Aversion)
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3845146/
Serotonergic innervation of sensory areas is seen ubiquitously across species and systems, but its functional role remains unclear to this day. We used a systems level approach to investigate the functional role of serotonergic input onto electrosensory pyramidal neurons in the weakly electric fish Apteronotus leptorhynchus. We found that serotonin selectively improved neuronal responses to stimuli associated with same-sex conspecifics by inducing increased excitability and burst firing. Further, serotonin enhanced perception of these stimuli while simultaneously inhibiting aggressive behaviors. Our results provide the first evidence that the serotonergic system acts as a “shut up and listen” system, thereby favoring covert behavior after an aggressive encounter together with enhanced perception of stimuli associated with dominant conspecifics.
Frustrative non-reward deactivated the orbitofrontal cortex, ventral striatum and posterior cingulate cortex, whereas increased activations were observed in midcingulo-insular regions, as well as dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, amygdala, thalamus and periaqueductal gray, when using liberal threshold. Retaliation activated of midcingulo-insular regions, the dorsal caudate and the primary somatosensory cortex. Conjunction analyses revealed that both strongly activated midcingulo-insular regions. Our results underscore the role of anterior midcingulate/pre-supplementary motor area and fronto-insular cortex in both frustration and retaliatory behaviors. A neurobiological framework for understanding frustration-based impulsive aggression is provided.https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1...1257119v1.full
Nearly a century ago, Dollard and colleagues proposed that some forms of aggression would appear in an inhibiting context, during which an object would interfere with goal attainment (Dollard, Miller, Doob, Mowrer, & Sears, 1939), therefore enhancing the risk for aggressive behaviors. In the following years, several researchers have criticized the mutually exclusive relationship between frustration and aggression...
More precisely, we sought to examine to what extent the frustrative non-reward and retaliatory behaviors spatially overlapped altogether, in order to provide a model of how this series of actions operate at the neurobiological level.
anger.jpg
Frustration is a basic emotion and hatred (or aggression) is a social emotion.
(?)
Yeah I mean I'm sick of the dogma that supposedly we all always go for pleasure and run from pain or discomfort
It just shows the bias these psychologists have, like they assume everyone else is like them.
How do you personally use anger for that?
I know I have a need to get it out myself (anger&aggression) and it works as long as your negative emotions (sadness) are not extreme.
That moment where you realise that it's just too extreme to get rid of it via your usual ways (anger&aggression) unless you want to end up in prison....I don't recommend getting there in life
Like, I don't recommend getting there where if you can't get it out you can't even concentrate anymore, do real work or do anything functional.
So I find people who are able to just release emotional energy directly* can have an advantage there then. Because to me, it looks like, it's more efficient to remove the negative energy that way than through - more simple - kinetic energy using plain (instrumental) anger/aggression. Like you can remove way more stuck emotional energy that way, with very little movement even. Gonna quote from a socionics page exactly about this: "What people usually call emotions or a person's display of emotions is neither more nor less than a form of letting out this internal excitation directly, almost without expending it in muscle activity. A cheerful person who laughs releases an emotional charge and inner excitation through certain movements of the muscles of the face and body. This might be a means for reducing overexcitement, when inner exertion cannot be used for the activity it was intended for."
*: cry, other ways of expressing sadness and other similar negative feelings, including symbolic, artistic ways or via talking to others etc etc
So, I've had to learn to do emotional processing myself....
Think this depends on the person then. For me clean anger/rage is usually enough. "Clean" means it's got no personal feelings or personal interest in it.
Trying to do a moral crusade to get it out doesn't work for me so well because I'll blow up in an uncontrollable way then so I just avoid getting into anything like that.
When it comes to moral causes, I'm way better off if I don't get involved when I'm in an emotional state / high arousal / whathaveyou.
Who said physical intimacy is worth less than "true" emotional intimacy? Or that it must end up in emptiness?Y'know, like the playboy who bangs 10 women in a night and still feels empty and unloved once it's all said and done. That's because he is the latter and feels empty because of it. Sex ain't true intimacy/love just by itself no matter what Hollywood tries to sell you.It's still a form of intimacy, is why this phrasing exists.
Interesting, I've never thought of it that way, that frustration can lead to all those negative feelings like neuroticism, sadness. For me personally I make it a point to never allow frustration, I always turn it into anger and action or an action plan if I can't act to resolve the issue/obstacle right away. Maybe that's why I don't often feel sad either
I wonder what they'd find in my brain when investigating this
But yeah so for me that theory makes intuitive sense, them being mutually exclusive.
Last edited by seeking it; 11-28-2022 at 07:12 AM.
(a lack of) concentration <--> noradrenaline <--> anger/frustration
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vigila..._brain_regions
Subcortical brain regions associated with arousal include the basal forebrain cholinergic system, and the locus coeruleus (LC) noradrenergic system. Both regions are components of the reticular activating system (RAS). The basal forebrain cholinergic system is associated with cortical acetylcholine release, which is associated with cortical arousal. Blocking the release of acetylcholine in the forebrain with GABAergic compounds impairs vigilance performance.
Several cortical brain regions are associated with attention and vigilance. These include the right frontal, inferior parietal, prefrontal, superior temporal cortices and cingulate gyrus. In the frontal lobe, fMRI and TCD data indicate that brain activation increases during vigilance tasks with greater activation in the right hemisphere. Lesion and split brain studies indicate better right-brain performance on vigilance tasks, indicating an important role for the right frontal cortex in vigilance tasks. Activity in the LC noradrenergic system is associated with the alert waking state in animals through the release of noradrenaline. Chemically blocking the release of noradrenaline induces drowsiness and lapses in attention associated with a vigilance decrement. The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex exhibits a higher level of activation than other significantly active areas, indicating a key role in vigilance.
https://sciencebeta.com/revenge-inhinition-dlpfc/
The more active the prefrontal dorsolateral cortex (DLPFC) is during the provocation phase of anger, the less the participant takes revenge, research from the University of Geneva has shown. The findings shed new light on which brain areas underlie the feelings of anger and the regulation of related punishment behaviors.
That's not surprising considering the social role dlpfc plays
Huh? Mind saying more?
I am trying to find out what causes anger/frustration. Social/sexual dominance, blame, an attack (approach), an obstacle and goal-blockage are mentioned in this thread. I am suggesting that a lack of concentration could be a factor as well.
Last edited by Petter; 12-12-2022 at 05:53 AM.
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