Model D

[Petter]

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3032992/

Midbrain dopamine neurons are well known for their strong responses to rewards and their critical role in positive motivation. It has become increasingly clear, however, that dopamine neurons also transmit signals related to salient but non-rewarding experiences such as aversive and alerting events. Here we review recent advances in understanding the reward and non-reward functions of dopamine. Based on this data, we propose that dopamine neurons come in multiple types that are connected with distinct brain networks and have distinct roles in motivational control. Some dopamine neurons encode motivational value, supporting brain networks for seeking, evaluation, and value learning. Others encode motivational salience, supporting brain networks for orienting, cognition, and general motivation. Both types of dopamine neurons are augmented by an alerting signal involved in rapid detection of potentially important sensory cues. We hypothesize that these dopaminergic pathways for value, salience, and alerting cooperate to support adaptive behavior.



https://www.frontiersin.org/articles...019.00334/full

Dopamine and noradrenaline are crucial neuromodulators controlling brain states, vigilance, action, reward, learning, and memory processes. Ventral tegmental area (VTA) and Locus Coeruleus (LC) are canonically described as the main sources of dopamine (DA) and noradrenaline (NA) with dissociate functions. A comparison of diverse studies shows that these neuromodulators largely overlap in multiple domains such as shared biosynthetic pathway and co-release from the LC terminals, convergent innervations, non-specificity of receptors and transporters, and shared intracellular signaling pathways. DA–NA interactions are mainly studied in prefrontal cortex and hippocampus, yet it can be extended to the whole brain given the diversity of catecholamine innervations. LC can simultaneously broadcast both dopamine and noradrenaline across the brain. Here, we briefly review the molecular, cellular, and physiological overlaps between DA and NA systems and point to their functional implications. We suggest that DA and NA may function in parallel to facilitate learning and maintain the states required for normal cognitive processes. Various signaling modules of NA and DA have been targeted for developing of therapeutics. Understanding overlaps of the two systems is crucial for more effective interventions in a range of neuropsychiatric conditions.



https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/55400

The decrease in central serotonergic activity was associated with negative emotional state, poor impulse control, aggressive behavior...



https://www.frontiersin.org/articles...016.00024/full

Since 5-HT release increases in the basolateral amygdala (BLA) during both fear memory acquisition and expression...



https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/b...rest-and-anger

I do not entirely agree with Tomkins on this point. Darwin does use the term attention to refer to what might be considered the affect of interest. When speaking of dogs, he noted: “…if his attention be suddenly aroused, he instantly pricks his ears to listen…” (Darwin, 1872 [Ekman, 1998, p. 283]). Darwin then turned to humans: “When the attention is concentrated for a length of time with fixed earnestness on any object or subject, all the organs of the body are forgotten and neglected… Therefore, many of the muscles tend to become relaxed, and the jaw drops from its own weight… Or again, if an attention continues long and earnestly absorbed, all our muscles become relaxed, and the jaw, which was at first suddenly opened, remains dropped. Thus, several causes concur towards this same movement, whenever surprise, astonishment or amazement is felt” (p. 284).

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He has also linked up attention with surprise, which is consistent with Tomkins’ idea of interest, fear, and surprise all being related: they all depend on the rapidity of stimulus increase. As noted previously, surprise is elicited by the more rapid stimulus increase, fear next, and interest by yet slower incoming stimuli.



https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interest_(emotion)

Facial expression of intense interest (emotion), which includes jaws being dropped, tongue being stuck upward and outward, and pupils being dilated.



https://www.britannica.com/science/norepinephrine

norepinephrine, also called noradrenaline, substance that is released predominantly from the ends of sympathetic nerve fibres and that acts to increase the force of skeletal muscle contraction...



https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/art...0#relationship

Neurotransmitters do not act independently.

They interact with and affect each other to maintain a careful chemical balance within the body. There are strong links between the serotonin and dopamine systems, both structurally and in function.

In some cases, serotonin appears to inhibit dopamine production, which means that low levels of serotonin can lead to an overproduction of dopamine. This may lead to impulsive behavior, due to the role that dopamine plays in reward seeking behavior.

Serotonin inhibits impulsive behavior, while dopamine enhances impulsivity.

Dopamine and serotonin have opposite effects on appetite; whereas serotonin suppresses it, low levels of dopamine can stimulate hunger.



https://www.theatlantic.com/health/a...otions/283560/

This leaves us with four "basic" emotions, according to this study: happy, sad, afraid/surprised, and angry/disgusted. These, the researchers say, are our biologically based facial signals—though distinctions exist between surprise and fear and between anger and disgust, the experiment suggests that these differences developed later, more for social reasons than survival ones.



https://www.tomkins.org/what-tomkins...d-personality/

An intensity of gaze, eyebrows down, “track, look, listen” is the face of interest.

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The smile, lips widened up and out, is the visible evidence of joy. The innate affect is triggered by a decreasing stimulus—perhaps a reduction in hunger or loneliness, or relief of pain.



https://www.jax.org/news-and-insight...ind-depression

People with clinical depression often have increased levels of monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A), an enzyme that breaks down key neurotransmitters, resulting in very low levels of serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine.



https://www.verywellmind.com/seroton...ome-p2-2584316

While SSRIs are sometimes prescribed to help treat anxiety, some research suggests that high levels of serotonin may be associated with anxiety disorders including social anxiety disorder and panic disorder. Studies suggest that an overactive serotonin system impacts the fear centers in the brain, which may lead to anxiety symptoms.

[Petter]

C)

excitement: dopamine (high), serotonin (low), noradrenaline (medium)

dispiritedness: dopamine (low), serotonin (high), noradrenaline (medium)

contentment: dopamine (medium), serotonin (medium), noradrenaline (medium)

anger: dopamine (high), serotonin (low), noradrenaline (high)

fear: dopamine (low), serotonin (high), noradrenaline (high)

[Petter]

D)

anger: dopamine (high), serotonin (low), noradrenaline (high)

fear: dopamine (low), serotonin (high), noradrenaline (high)



interest/excitement: dopamine (high), serotonin (low), noradrenaline (medium)

surprise: dopamine (low), serotonin (high), noradrenaline (medium)



discontentment/sadness: dopamine (high), serotonin (low), noradrenaline (low)

contentment/joy: dopamine (low), serotonin (high), noradrenaline (low)

[Petter]

E)

anger: dopamine (high), serotonin (low), noradrenaline (high)

fear: dopamine (low), serotonin (high), noradrenaline (high)



interest/excitement: dopamine (high), serotonin (low), noradrenaline (medium)

surprise: dopamine (low), serotonin (high), noradrenaline (medium)



happiness: dopamine (high), serotonin (high), noradrenaline (medium) ... high ---> euphoria

sadness: dopamine (low), serotonin (low), noradrenaline (medium) ... low ---> depression

[Petter]

medium = balanced

[Petter]

anger <--> manageable obstacles ("negative resources")

fear <--> unmanageable obstacles



interest <--> manageable resources

surprise <--> unmanageable resources



happiness <--> gain

sadness <--> loss

[Petter]

fear <--> a lack of control (a future event) ---> stop (or avoid) ... a lack of control usually leads to a loss

surprise <--> a lack of control (a past event) ---> stop (or avoid)



interest/excitement <--> he expects a gain (a future event) ---> approach

anger <--> he expected a gain (a past event) ---> approach ... more energy and concentration (more noradrenaline)



happiness <--> gain

sadness <--> loss

[Petter]

excitement ---> approach

surprise ---> stop

fear ---> avoid

[Petter]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reward_system

"The wanting component is thought to be controlled by dopaminergic pathways..."

The more we want something, the more likely we are to get excited and act impulsively.

Impulsivity (i.e. higher risk) is acceptable if the reward is significant.

[Petter]

https://sccn.ucsd.edu/~scott/pdf/Makeig_MoBI_HCI09.pdf

"The fundamental purpose of the brain is to control behavior or more exactly, to optimize the outcome of behavior – maximizing its ensuing rewards and/or minimizing ensuing penalties as per subject purposes, needs, and desires."

[Petter]

I think the main purpose of emotions is to optimize the risk/reward ratio.

[Tallmo]

https://sccn.ucsd.edu/~scott/pdf/Makeig_MoBI_HCI09.pdf

"The fundamental purpose of the brain is to control behavior or more exactly, to optimize the outcome of behavior – maximizing its ensuing rewards and/or minimizing ensuing penalties as per subject purposes, needs, and desires."

That sounds to me like the purpose of the Ego. The Ego is a psychic complex, center of consciousness, on the biological side rooted in the brain somehow.

[Petter]

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4080475/

"Moeller et al. believed that impulsivity includes readiness to take immediate and unplanned action as a response to internal and external stimuli, with no regard for their negative consequences for themselves or the others."



https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_impulsivity

"Functional impulsivity is a tendency to make quick decisions when it is optimal and beneficial."

"Functional impulsivity is related to enthusiasm, adventurousness, activity, extraversion, and narcissism."

[Petter]

https://www.ucsf.edu/news/2012/07/98...ncy-ucsf-gallo

The study was not designed to investigate the reasons that reduced dopamine is linked with impulsivity. However, explained Kayser, scientists believe that impulsivity is associated with an imbalance in dopamine between the frontal cortex, which governs executive functions such as cognitive control and self-regulation, and the striatum, which is thought to be involved in the planning and modification of more habitual behaviors.

“Most, if not all, drugs of abuse, such as cocaine and amphetamine, directly or indirectly involve the dopamine system,” said Kayser. “They tend to increase dopamine in the striatum, which in turn may reward impulsive behavior. In a very simplistic fashion, the striatum is saying ‘go,’ and the frontal cortex is saying ‘stop.’ If you take cocaine, you’re increasing the ‘go’ signal, and the ‘stop’ signal is not adequate to counteract it.”

[Petter]

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-28863-3

Although anger and aggression have been researched since decades, there are still few studies on the neural functions that dissociate feelings of anger from the regulation of aggressive responses or reactive punishment behaviors. Anger and aggression are conceptually related, but anger does not always result in aggression. In fact, the emotion of anger, which is defined as a negative emotional response to goal-blockage and unfair behavior by others, is conceptually distinct from aggression, which is defined as an action intended to cause harm to another individual. Although aggression is often perceived as maladaptive, certain forms of aggression may actually serve evolutionary adaptive purposes, such as securing resources or defending against attacks.

Pertaining to the brain activation patterns underlying anger, the majority of neuroimaging studies have investigated this emotion indirectly by showing angry faces, or by using recall, imagery, or rumination of anger-eliciting situations. The results of these studies are very divergent in their findings. Whereas some findings point to an involvement of the orbitofrontal cortex, other results suggest reduced activations in the orbitofrontal cortex and somatosensory cortex as well as increased activations in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and insula. Still other studies found an association of the temporal poles, or the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex with anger.

[Petter]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbitofrontal_cortex

Meta analyses of neuroimaging studies in OCD report hyperactivity in areas generally considered to be part of the orbitofrontal segment of the cortico-basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical loop such as the caudate nucleus, thalamus and orbitofrontal cortex.

[Petter]

fear ---> be more careful

anger ---> be less careful (or more reckless)

I still think this is correct.

[Petter]

https://www.sciencedaily.com/release...0617115327.htm

"They found that patients with social phobia produced too much serotonin in a part of the brain's fear centre, the amygdala. The more serotonin produced, the more anxious the patients were in social situations."

"This discovery is a major leap forward when it comes to identifying changes in the brain's chemical messengers in people who suffer from anxiety. Earlier research has shown that nerve activity in the amygdala is higher in people with social phobia and thus that the brain's fear centre is over-sensitive. The new findings indicate that a surplus of serotonin is part of the underlying reason.

'Serotonin can increase anxiety and not decrease it as was previously often assumed', says Andreas Frick."

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"Serotonin affects the region of the cell where electrical impulses are generated, and in doing so it acts like a thermostat, changing the neuron's sensitivity to the activity of its inputs, so it can be more or less selective about what signals it lets through"

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https://www.inverse.com/science/why-...one-to-anxiety

"Previous research suggests serotonin, the so-called 'happy chemical,' plays a pivotal role in regulating mood and contributing to mental well-being. The brain's serotonin levels are partly controlled by proteins on the surface of brain cells - the serotonin transporter. When transporter levels are high, serotonin levels are lower, Quah explains."

"This revealed that monkeys with heightened reactivity (those that were the most anxious) had high levels of gene expression for serotonin transporters in their amygdala. This finding suggests serotonin signaling may be driving anxious behavior.

'As non-human primate's brains share large similarities to the human brain, our findings suggest that decreased serotonin signaling in the amygdala may, in part, underlie people's heightened reactivity to a perceived threat,' Quah says."

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https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf...69881117725915

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5606297/ (Serotonin and brain function: a tale of two receptors)

"Previous attempts to identify a unified theory of brain serotonin function have largely failed to achieve consensus. In this present synthesis, we integrate previous perspectives with new and older data to create a novel bipartite model centred on the view that serotonin neurotransmission enhances two distinct adaptive responses to adversity, mediated in large part by its two most prevalent and researched brain receptors: the 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A receptors. We propose that passive coping (i.e. tolerating a source of stress) is mediated by postsynaptic 5-HT1AR signalling and characterised by stress moderation. Conversely, we argue that active coping (i.e. actively addressing a source of stress) is mediated by 5-HT2AR signalling and characterised by enhanced plasticity (defined as capacity for change). We propose that 5-HT1AR-mediated stress moderation may be the brain’s default response to adversity but that an improved ability to change one’s situation and/or relationship to it via 5-HT2AR-mediated plasticity may also be important – and increasingly so as the level of adversity reaches a critical point. We propose that the 5-HT1AR pathway is enhanced by conventional 5-HT reuptake blocking antidepressants such as the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), whereas the 5-HT2AR pathway is enhanced by 5-HT2AR-agonist psychedelics. This bipartite model purports to explain how different drugs (SSRIs and psychedelics) that modulate the serotonergic system in different ways, can achieve complementary adaptive and potentially therapeutic outcomes."

"This said, it is intriguing to consider the possibility that a ‘loosened mind’, whether subsequent to enhanced 5-HT2AR signalling or not, may be a non-negligible component of the neurobiology of positive mood itself (Ashby et al., 1999). Blocking the 5-HT2AR has been found to significantly attenuate the positive mood effects of three different classic psychedelics (Kometer et al., 2012; Preller, 2016; Valle et al., 2016) and MDMA (van Wel et al., 2012), and it is intriguing to consider whether 5-HT2AR-mediated plasticity may be an underappreciated component of the antidepressant action of SSRIs (Chamberlain et al., 2006; Petit et al., 2014; Qesseveur et al., 2016). Several studies have demonstrated a relationship between positive mood and creative thinking (De Dreu et al., 2008; Hirt et al., 2008), with the elation, flight of ideas and general hyper-creativity of manic states being relevant in this context (Jamison, 1994).

‘The secret to happiness is freedom’. (Thucydides c. 450BC)

It is presumed that the brain (like the mind) functions in a freer, less constrained manner during creative states, as during positive mood..."

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serotonin.png

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anger and fear.jpg

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https://www.mentalhelp.net/anger/physiology/

https://www.mentalhelp.net/anger/vs-fear/

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https://www.verywellhealth.com/norep...or-you-3967568

"The CNS is able to communicate with your body because of nerve cells called neurons. You have around 86 billion of them, and their job is to transmit signals from your brain to your muscles and cells—why they are also called chemical messengers or neurotransmitters.

Specialized neurons located within your brainstem and spinal cord, called postganglionic neurons, are among them. These are the neurons that release norepinephrine.

Once released, NE travels to its target nerve, binds to the nerve's receptor, and directs it take an action. That directive might be go to sleep or wake up, be more focused, feel happy, and much more.

Norepinephrine is also produced in the inner part of your adrenal glands called the adrenal medulla. In this case, NE is generated because of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS)—the driving force behind your fight-or-flight response.

When the body senses stress, your SNS signals your adrenal glands to release norepinephrine. NE then travels through your bloodstream and, as a hormone, initiates a stress response that allows you to quickly mobilize your body and brain so you can protect yourself."

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"Is adrenaline a neurotransmitter?

Epinephrine (also known as adrenaline) is a neurotransmitter in the sense that, within the brain, it help neurons to communicate with one another. However, because epinephrine is mainly produced by the adrenal glands and has functions peripherally (i.e., outside the brain), it can also be considered a hormone."

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https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics...es/epinephrine

"Epinephrine does not have its own receptors. Instead, since its chemical composition resembles norepinephrine very closely, epinephrine stimulates norepinephrine receptors both in the brain as well as peripherally. In fact, while norepinephrine is primarily a neurotransmitter, epinephrine is primarily a hormone. Consequently, the action of adrenaline is essentially that of noradrenaline, with more intense peripheral effects. Effects of epinephrine stimulation are especially evident during stress reactions, and epinephrine is one of the major hormones involved in the stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system. Stimulation of adrenergic receptors is likely to exert sympathetic effects, while blocking those receptors will result in parasympathetic reactions."

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https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/b...us-wonder-twin

"Norepinephrine (also called noradrenaline) is ‘adrenaline for your brain’. Just as adrenaline revs up your body, norepinephrine revs up your brain."

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"Does serotonin relax muscles?

The relaxation of vascular smooth muscle by serotonin may occur as a result of its ability to release factors from the endothelium or by a direct effect on the smooth muscle itself. Several studies have documented the ability of serotonin to relax vascular tissue by a mechanism involving the endothelium."

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https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/b...od-bad-or-both

"Here, in brief, is how the survival-oriented acute stress response operates. Accurately or not, if you assess the immediately menacing force as something you potentially have the power to defeat, you go into fight mode. In such instances, the hormones released by your sympathetic nervous system—especially adrenaline—prime you to do battle and, hopefully, triumph over the hostile entity.

Conversely, if you view the antagonistic force as too powerful to overcome, your impulse is to outrun it (and the faster the better). And this, of course, is the flight response, also linked to the instantaneous ramping up of your emergency biochemical supplies—so that, ideally, you can escape from this adversarial power (whether it be human, animal, or some calamity of nature).

Where, in what you perceive as a dire threat, is the totally disabling freeze response? By default, this reaction refers to a situation in which you’ve concluded (in a matter of seconds—if not milliseconds) that you can neither defeat the frighteningly dangerous opponent confronting you nor safely bolt from it. And ironically, this self-paralyzing response can, in the moment, be just as adaptive as either valiantly fighting the enemy or, more cautiously, fleeing from it."

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https://www.sciencedaily.com/release...1127161446.htm

"A Columbia University study in fruit flies has identified serotonin as a chemical that triggers the body's startle response, the automatic deer-in-the-headlights reflex that freezes the body momentarily in response to a potential threat."

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https://www.sciencedaily.com/release...0605150908.htm

"New research suggests that the neurotransmitter serotonin, which acts as a chemical messenger between nerve cells, plays a critical role in regulating emotions such as aggression during social decision-making. Though many have hypothesized the link between serotonin and impulsivity, this is one of the first studies to show a causal link between the two."

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https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/b...and-adrenaline

"Anger is anxiety with a chemical kick. Many reactions occur in your body (2). This includes:

Shift of blood supply to skeletal muscles, which enables you to flee danger.

Decreased blood flow to your brain – especially to the frontal cortex where most thinking occurs." etc

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https://www.healthline.com/health/st...mygdala-hijack

"The amygdala hijack occurs when your amygdala responds to stress and disables your frontal lobes. That activates the fight-or-flight response and disables rational, reasoned responses. In other words, the amygdala 'hijacks' control of your brain and your responses."

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https://fbaum.unc.edu/teaching/artic...rAngerRisk.pdf

"... the authors predicted and found that fear and anger have opposite effects on risk perception. Whereas fearful people expressed pessimistic risk estimates and risk-averse choices, angry people expressed optimistic risk estimates and risk-seeking choices."

[Petter]

F)

happiness: serotonin (high), noradrenaline (high)

sadness: serotonin (low), noradrenaline (low)



calmness, contentment: serotonin (high), noradrenaline (low)

stress, nervousness (---> anger and fear): serotonin (low), noradrenaline (high)



excitement, interest (including surprise): dopamine (high), noradrenaline (high)

boredom, fatigue: dopamine (low), noradrenaline (low)

[Petter]

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3858647/

Novelty and surprise play significant roles in animal behavior and in attempts to understand the neural mechanisms underlying it. They also play important roles in technology, where detecting observations that are novel or surprising is central to many applications, such as medical diagnosis, text processing, surveillance, and security. Theories of motivation, particularly of intrinsic motivation, place novelty and surprise among the primary factors that arouse interest, motivate exploratory or avoidance behavior, and drive learning. In many of these studies, novelty and surprise are not distinguished from one another: the words are used more-or-less interchangeably. However, while undeniably closely related, novelty and surprise are very different. The purpose of this article is first to highlight the differences between novelty and surprise and to discuss how they are related by presenting an extensive review of mathematical and computational proposals related to them, and then to explore the implications of this for understanding behavioral and neuroscience data. We argue that opportunities for improved understanding of behavior and its neural basis are likely being missed by failing to distinguish between novelty and surprise.

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https://www.simonsfoundation.org/201...h-of-a-reward/

The neurotransmitter famously provides the thrill we get from a surprise, a phenomenon known as reward prediction error. But growing evidence suggests the chemical also tracks movement, novelty and other neurobiological factors.

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https://nida.nih.gov/news-events/sci...xpected-events

The neurotransmitter dopamine helps people remember the pleasurable effects of drugs and reinforces the desire to seek them out again, making it centrally involved in addiction. Relatedly, dopamine neurons are also involved in “prediction errors,” responding when the value of a reward is more or less than expected. Scientists from NIDA’s Intramural Research Program demonstrated that dopamine neurons in the midbrain also respond to errors predicting features of a reward that are unrelated to its value, and a new study extends these findings. This research suggests that dopamine neurons are carrying much more information than previously thought, opening up new possibilities for how the dopamine system might be contributing to learning.

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https://www.frontiersin.org/articles...011.00115/full

Under the assumption of a tight link between noradrenaline (NA) and pupil size under constant illumination, our data may be interpreted as empirical evidence for the hypothesis that NA plays a similar role for uncertainty as dopamine does for reward, namely the encoding of error signals.

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https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/...nalCode=pcem20

Tornochuk and Ellis argue that DISGUST should be considered a basic emotional system, on a par with the other basic emotional systems such as SEEKING, FEAR, RAGE, LUST, CARE, PANIC and PLAY, which constitute the groundwork for a cross-species emotion neuroscience with immediate implications for understanding emotional imbalances that characterise psychiatric disorders. Disgust is clearly a basic sensory/interoceptive affect (Rozin & Fallon, 1987), and a socially constructed moral emotion (Haidt, 2003a, b), but perhaps it is a category error to classify disgust as a basic emotion. It is more akin to a sensory affect. If we consider sensory disgust to be a basic emotional systems, then why not include hunger, thirst, fatigue and many other affective states of the body as emotions?

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https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2012-33482-019

These results suggest that activation of 5-HT₃ receptors in the posterior IC is important for the production of nausea-induced conditioned disgust reactions, while activation of 5-HT₃ receptors in the anterior IC are involved in the production of CTA.

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https://www.frontiersin.org/articles...020.00021/full

This theory of emotion states that central DA is a hedonic signal for salient stimuli, such as food, sex, and other needs; central 5-HT is related to disgust or punishment; and central NE is the substrate for emotions that trigger “fight or flight” response, such as fear and anger (Gu et al., 2019). Many recent emotion experimental and theoretical studies surging up recently support this emotion theory based on the three monoamines (Lovheim, 2012).

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https://www.huffpost.com/entry/hacki...py-c_b_6007660

Serotonin flows when you feel significant or important. Loneliness and depression appears when serotonin is absent. It's perhaps one reason why people fall into gang and criminal activity -- the culture brings experiences that facilitate serotonin release. Unhealthy attention-seeking behavior can also be a cry for what serotonin brings. Princeton neuroscientist Barry Jacobs explains that most antidepressants focus on the production of serotonin.

Reflecting on past significant achievements allows the brain to re-live the experience. Our brain has trouble telling the difference between what's real and imagined, so it produces serotonin in both cases. It's another reason why gratitude practices are popular. They remind us that we are valued and have much to value in life. If you need a serotonin boost during a stressful day, take a few moments to reflect on a past achievements and victories.

[Petter]

excitement <--> he expects a gain of resources

interest (novelty and surprise) <--> there is a potential gain of resources

[Petter]

Disgust (or dislike) is not a basic emotion.

1. rotten food etc <--> disgust

2. asymmetric objects (including face/body) <--> unattractiveness, unhealthiness

3. different/"wrong" shape, pattern, behavior, conclusion etc <--> anger/frustration or disappointment/sadness

[Petter]

G)

happiness: serotonin 2 and noradrenaline (high)

sadness: serotonin 2 and noradrenaline (low)



calmness, contentment: serotonin 1 and noradrenaline (low)

stress, nervousness (---> anger and fear): serotonin 1 and noradrenaline (high)



excitement, interest (including surprise): dopamine and noradrenaline (high)

boredom, fatigue: dopamine and noradrenaline (low)

[ILoveChinchillas]

It's probably the best way to innovate Socionics models: making a materialistic basis for functional activity. Ergo, mapping neurotransmitters to the functions.

[Tarnished]

When will this system be complete and more easy to read?

[Petter]

When will this system be complete and more easy to read?

I don't know when it will be complete. These definitions of the basic emotions are somewhat off topic so I will probably stop here or create another thread. And I will update post #1 with my conclusions so it is easier to read.

[Petter]

https://www.frontiersin.org/articles...012.00348/full

In sum, the evidence presented in the previous sections appears to suggest that although both the anterior and the posterior DMN hubs are involved in self-centered and social cognition and are co-activated during passive states, they are associated with rather different functions. The anterior DMN is more involved in integration, planning, and control functions, which are mostly conscious and are reciprocally related to dopaminergic reward processes. The posterior DMN is more involved in self-representation and salience detection. The latter processes are mostly unconscious and are positively related to dopaminergic reward processes. The former processes are less and the latter processes are more pronounced in extraverts than in introverts.

[Petter]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_impulsivity

https://www.researchgate.net/publica...Lost_Dimension

Impulsivity has had a varied role in the study of personality and temperament and an even more varied role in the work of Hans Eysenck. While impulsivity was at one point a core feature of extraversion (Eysenck, 1967; H.J. Eysenck and S.B.G. Eysenck, 1967; S.B.G. Eysenckand H.J. Eysenck, 1963, 1979) that was said to be married in a shotgun wedding with Sociability (Guilford, 1975), it is now seen by some as a component of Psychoticism (Eysenck,1990, 1991a, 1992; H.J. Eysenck and M.W. Eysenck, 1985) and by others as a central component of uncontrolled stimulation seeking and psychopathic behavior (P-Imp-USS,Zuckerman, 1994). Considered a facet of emotionality (Costa and McCrae, 1992) or non-conscientiousness (Digman, 1994) impulsivity has had a varied life in its identification in three, four, or five dimensional personality space. At the same time as it has suffered from an identity crisis in terms of measurement (Rocklin and Revelle, 1981) impulsivity has been identified as a central feature in arousal based theories of cognitive performance (Anderson & Revelle, 1994; Humphreys and Revelle, 1984; Revelle, 1989; Revelle, Humphreys, Simon andGilliland, 1980) that has a strong biological basis (Schalling and Åsberg; 1985; Zuckerman,1991). [...]

In the first three-dimensional model of temperament Heymans related impulsivity to a bias towards the primary effects of stimulation versus a bias towards secondary or reflective processing (Heymans, 1929 as cited by Van der Werff and Verster, 1987; Van der Werff,1985). Considering secondary functioning, in combination with two other dimensions, emotionality and activity, allowed Heymans to go beyond the personality types of Galen and to introduce dimensional thinking into personality research. In later reanalyses of Heymans' data, ratings of impulsivity had high loadings on the "secondary function" factor and were associated with being lively and busy, demonstrative, violent, but not calm, quiet, or thoughtful (Van derWerff and Verster, 1987).

In his Explorations of Personality, Murray considered "Impulsion" as "the tendency to respond ... quickly and with out reflection" and as characterizing someone who "is usually restless, quick to move, quick to make up his mind, quick to voice his opinion. He often says the first thing that comes into his head; and does not always consider the future consequences of his conduct." (Murray, 1938, p 205).

[Petter]

dichotomies

deliberateness vs. impulsivity/quick decisions (the frontal lobe vs. the striatum)

task-oriented vs. people-oriented (FPN vs. CON)

the external world vs. the internal world (CON vs. DMN ... FPN+DAN/VAN vs. FPN+DMN)

dorsal stream vs. ventral stream

single-tasking vs. multitasking (BA10: active vs. inactive)

left hemisphere vs. right hemisphere

[Petter]

16pf.png

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/16PF_Questionnaire

The difference between ESI and SEE is Liveliness (F).

[Petter]

dichotomies

deliberateness vs. impulsivity/quick decisions

... or inexpressive (I) vs. expressive (E)

(the frontal lobe vs. the striatum)

... or anterior DMN vs. posterior DMN

"posterior DMN is [...] positively related to dopaminergic reward processes"

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https://introvertdear.com/news/intro...ng-to-science/

"extroverts are less sensitive to dopamine, so they need more of it to feel happy"

[Petter]

https://www.frontiersin.org/articles...019.00028/full

The dorsal striatum and cortical inputs to this structure have emerged as key players in the wider basal ganglia circuitry encoding behavioral automaticity, and changes in the activity of different neuronal cell-types in these brain regions have been shown to co-occur with the formation of automatic behaviors.


https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4870408/

The prefrontal cortex (PFC) and striatum are two important brain regions. Anatomically, they are tightly connected (Alexander et al. 1986). Particularly, the striatum receives direct projections from the PFC (Haber et al. 2006), and its outputs project to thalamus through direct or indirect pathways, and the signal is feedback from the thalamus to the PFC, forming a closed loop (Yin and Knowlton 2006). The anatomical connections between the PFC and striatum suggest that the two areas may have close relations in functions. Many studies have reported that they are involved in some cognitive functions, such as, learning, attention, reward processing, category representation and behavior controlling by different neural mechanisms (Antzoulatos and Miller 2011; Asaad and Eskandard 2011; Deserno et al. 2015). One hypothesis held that the PFC controls the behavior for subjects using mode-based learning approach, while the striatum controls the habitual behavior using mode-free learning method (Daw et al. 2005).


https://news.brown.edu/articles/2011/04/bias

People with a variation on the gene DARPP-32 that affects the response to dopamine in the stratium allowed people to learn more quickly from experience when no advice was given, but also made them more readily impressionable to the bias of the PFC when instruction was given. Like a “yes man” who is flexible to a fault, the striatum would give more weight to experiences that reinforced the PFC’s belief, and less weight to experiences that contradicted it.

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Q1: conservative, respecting traditional ideas, attached to the familiar etc vs. open to change, critical, freethinking, flexibility etc

[Petter]

Open to change vs. traditional (PFC vs. the striatum) could be another dichotomy.

[Petter]

an ESE-like type: E + CON 2 > FN (active) > VAN

an IEE-like type: E + CON 1 > DMN 1 > FPN 1

[Petter]

Bill Gates

inexpressive

task-oriented

the internal world

the dorsal stream

single-tasking

the left hemisphere

open to change

[Petter]

Craig Ferguson

expressive

people-oriented

the internal world ("Ne-" <--> dmPFC)

the dorsal stream

multitasking

the right hemisphere

open to change

[Petter]

"Brodmann Area 10 (BA10) is also known as the Frontal pole cortex and is known to be involved in cognition and more specifically in goal formation. In one paper, the authors argue that the left BA10 is involved in integrating information in higher level cognitive processes. There is a lot of research supporting a role for BA10 in memory. BA10 has been found to have a relationship with prospective memory in a number of studies."

https://www.frontiersin.org/articles...019.00241/full

"Prospective memory is defined as the memory for intentions. It enables us to remember to carry out an action that has been planned for a predefined time in the future, while performing a concurrent activity named ongoing task (Einstein and McDaniel, 1990)."

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single-tasking <--> planning and organizing

[Petter]

"Intuition" = the internal world (DMN) + open to change

[Petter]

single-tasking <--> planning and organizing

Perfectionism (Q3): perfectionistic, organized, compulsive, self-disciplined, socially precise, exacting will power, control, self-sentimental

[Petter]

PFC and the premotor cortex.png

It is possible that a single-tasker gives more weight to the current goal.