Basic Emotions

[Petter]

https://www.the16types.info/vbulleti.../51596-Model-D (page 14-17)

G)

happiness: serotonin 2 and noradrenaline (high)

sadness: serotonin 2 and noradrenaline (low)



calmness, contentment: serotonin 1 and noradrenaline (low)

stress, nervousness (---> anger and fear): serotonin 1 and noradrenaline (high)



excitement, interest (including surprise): dopamine and noradrenaline (high)

boredom, fatigue: dopamine and noradrenaline (low)

[Petter]

https://www.simonsfoundation.org/201...h-of-a-reward/

"The neurotransmitter famously provides the thrill we get from a surprise, a phenomenon known as reward prediction error. But growing evidence suggests the chemical also tracks movement, novelty and other neurobiological factors."

[Petter]

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf...69881117725915

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5606297/ (Serotonin and brain function: a tale of two receptors)

"Previous attempts to identify a unified theory of brain serotonin function have largely failed to achieve consensus. In this present synthesis, we integrate previous perspectives with new and older data to create a novel bipartite model centred on the view that serotonin neurotransmission enhances two distinct adaptive responses to adversity, mediated in large part by its two most prevalent and researched brain receptors: the 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A receptors. We propose that passive coping (i.e. tolerating a source of stress) is mediated by postsynaptic 5-HT1AR signalling and characterised by stress moderation. Conversely, we argue that active coping (i.e. actively addressing a source of stress) is mediated by 5-HT2AR signalling and characterised by enhanced plasticity (defined as capacity for change). We propose that 5-HT1AR-mediated stress moderation may be the brain’s default response to adversity but that an improved ability to change one’s situation and/or relationship to it via 5-HT2AR-mediated plasticity may also be important – and increasingly so as the level of adversity reaches a critical point. We propose that the 5-HT1AR pathway is enhanced by conventional 5-HT reuptake blocking antidepressants such as the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), whereas the 5-HT2AR pathway is enhanced by 5-HT2AR-agonist psychedelics. This bipartite model purports to explain how different drugs (SSRIs and psychedelics) that modulate the serotonergic system in different ways, can achieve complementary adaptive and potentially therapeutic outcomes."

"This said, it is intriguing to consider the possibility that a ‘loosened mind’, whether subsequent to enhanced 5-HT2AR signalling or not, may be a non-negligible component of the neurobiology of positive mood itself (Ashby et al., 1999). Blocking the 5-HT2AR has been found to significantly attenuate the positive mood effects of three different classic psychedelics (Kometer et al., 2012; Preller, 2016; Valle et al., 2016) and MDMA (van Wel et al., 2012), and it is intriguing to consider whether 5-HT2AR-mediated plasticity may be an underappreciated component of the antidepressant action of SSRIs (Chamberlain et al., 2006; Petit et al., 2014; Qesseveur et al., 2016). Several studies have demonstrated a relationship between positive mood and creative thinking (De Dreu et al., 2008; Hirt et al., 2008), with the elation, flight of ideas and general hyper-creativity of manic states being relevant in this context (Jamison, 1994).

‘The secret to happiness is freedom’. (Thucydides c. 450BC)

It is presumed that the brain (like the mind) functions in a freer, less constrained manner during creative states, as during positive mood..."

serotonin.png

[Petter]

https://www.frontiersin.org/articles...015.00253/full

"Risk-taking was modulated by emotional context: fear and anger influenced risk-taking specifically in the gain frame and had opposite effects. Fear increased risk-averse choices, whereas anger decreased risk-averse choices, leading to a suppression of the framing effect. These results confirm that emotions play a key role in framing susceptibility."

[Hot Scalding Gayser]

Agape is that you?

[Petter]

https://www.huffpost.com/entry/hacki...py-c_b_6007660

"Serotonin flows when you feel significant or important. Loneliness and depression appears when serotonin is absent. It's perhaps one reason why people fall into gang and criminal activity -- the culture brings experiences that facilitate serotonin release. Unhealthy attention-seeking behavior can also be a cry for what serotonin brings. Princeton neuroscientist Barry Jacobs explains that most antidepressants focus on the production of serotonin.

Reflecting on past significant achievements allows the brain to re-live the experience. Our brain has trouble telling the difference between what's real and imagined, so it produces serotonin in both cases. It's another reason why gratitude practices are popular. They remind us that we are valued and have much to value in life. If you need a serotonin boost during a stressful day, take a few moments to reflect on a past achievements and victories."

[Fluffy Princess Unicorn]

Oooh basic emotions, like maybe Paul Ekman and micro expressions and such!

Nope...nvm, it's neurochemistry. *Exits*

[Petter]

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/...1111/jnc.15607

Happiness could be a self-conscious emotion (not a basic emotion) and it could be the same thing as pride.

[Petter]

https://time.com/4254089/science-crying/

"Crying signals to yourself and other people that there’s some important problem that is at least temporarily beyond your ability to cope"

[Petter]

stress and nervousness (---> tension): a threat/a problem <--> serotonin 1

anger and fear: the fight-or-flight response <--> noradrenaline (high)

happiness/pride (satisfaction with achievement): actively addressing a source of stress <--> serotonin 2 ... a self-conscious emotion

contempt: someone is causing a threat (blame) ... a self-conscious emotion

excitement and interest (including surprise): motivation <--> dopamine

[Petter]

disgust <--> serotonin 3 ... a basic emotion?

[Petter]

Relaxedness, calmness and relief are not positive emotions. Instead, they describe an absence of negative emotions. This means that positive/negative valence is an incorrect dimension of emotions.

basic emotions future and past.png

two dimensions of emotion.png

[AnakinJirachi]

Emotion as a carousel of symphony ranked categories to rationalize and understand our sigils and axioms of the candle of love and honor makes us free to imagine and embody timeless themes and messages from the pool of ideals to anime us as the characters with our emotions and divine expressions infinitely.

[Petter]

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2801060/ (Dopamine Enhances Expectation of Pleasure in Humans)

"Human action is strongly influenced by expectations of pleasure. Making decisions, ranging from which products to buy to which job offer to accept, requires an estimation of how good (or bad) the likely outcomes will make us feel. Yet, little is known about the biological basis of subjective estimations of future hedonic reactions. Here, we show that administration of a drug that enhances dopaminergic function (dihydroxy-L-phenylalanine; L-DOPA) during the imaginative construction of positive future life events subsequently enhances estimates of the hedonic pleasure to be derived from these same events. These findings provide the first direct evidence for the role of dopamine in the modulation of subjective hedonic expectations in humans."



https://www.intoactionrecovery.com/h...-our-behavior/

"Excitatory neurotransmitters encourage a cell to take action."

"Inhibitory neurotransmitters decrease the chances of a cell taking any type of action, leading to a relaxation-like effect on the body."

"Dopamine is an excitatory neurotransmitter. Dopamine communicates with brain cells and encourages them to act in a pleasurable, excitable, euphoric way. The excitatory nature of dopamine is also one of the reasons why the chemical messenger motivates us. By encouraging our brain cells to take certain actions, dopamine influences our behavior. But dopamine differs from most neurotransmitters. Even though dopamine is an excitatory neurotransmitter, the chemical messenger can encourage or prevent action depending on the receptors present."



https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/326090#fa-qs

Do dopamine and serotonin make a person happy?

People often call dopamine and serotonin the “happy hormones,” because they promote mental well-being.

Dopamine, also known as the “feel-good” hormone, is associated with the brain’s reward system and produces pleasant sensations.

Serotonin can help increase happiness by alleviating depression and anxiety.



https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4899514/ (Noradrenaline effects on social behaviour, intergroup relations, and moral decisions)

"There is much evidence suggesting an interaction between NA and oxytocin, also with regards to regulating social behaviour. For example, Salmina et al. (2010) described evidence suggesting that oxytocin release was regulated by NA in the hypothalamic-neurophysical system, specifically including the supraoptic nucleus and the paraventricular nucleus (PVN). The authors argued that NA activates presynaptic glutamate interneurons closely located around PVN and therewith indirectly causes oxytocin release."



https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4449495/

"... neurotransmitters (e.g. dopamine, serotonin, norepinefrine and endorphin) play a role in control of happiness. A few studies pointed to the role of cortisol and adrenaline (adrenal gland) and oxitocin (pituitary gland) in controlling happiness."



https://www.apa.org/monitor/feb08/oxytocin

"New studies are adding to a body of literature that shows oxytocin plays a key role in maternal bonding and social affiliation-what Taylor has labeled the "tend and befriend" response, as opposed to the "fight or flight" response. In line with years of animal research linking oxytocin to mothers' ability to care for their infants, a study in the November Psychological Science (Vol. 18, No. 11, pages 965-970), demonstrates this association for the first time in people."



https://www.psycom.net/oxytocin

“I would argue the phrase ‘the cuddle hormone’ is a bit of a misnomer,” Brown says. While it’s true that oxytocin enhances bonding under certain circumstances, it may also lead to jealousy, suspicion, and the formation of “in” groups and “out” groups. “It seems the effect of oxytocin depends on the situation. So, when someone is in the presence of a person who is not part of their ‘tribe’ if you will, it can actually increase negative feelings toward members of the ‘out’ group. It’s not as straightforward of an explanation as we used to think,” Brown says.



https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/art...fits-of-crying

"As well as helping people self-soothe, crying can help people get support from others around them.

As this 2016 study explains, crying is primarily an attachment behavior, as it rallies support from the people around us. This is known as an interpersonal or social benefit."

"Crying may help lift people’s spirits and make them feel better. As well as relieving pain, oxytocin and endorphins can help improve mood."



https://www.backinline.com.au/power-...-nerve-system/

"Laughter can create instant bonds between individuals. The release of oxytocin occurs while laughing. Often called the empathy hormone, oxytocin helps bond individuals and collectives."



https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6713138/

"Complicated grief (CG) is a debilitating syndrome characterized by persisting and intense distress and impairment after the death of a loved one. The biological mechanisms associated with this syndrome remain unclear but may involve neurobiological pathways implicated in the stress response and attachment systems. The neuropeptide oxytocin has been implicated in attachment and social behaviour, and loss of social bonds has been associated with disruptions in oxytocin signalling."



neurotransmitters 3.png

[Petter]

http://www.tomkins.org/what-tomkins-...d-personality/

https://www.paulekman.com/universal-emotions/

[Petter]

depression <--> a threat (stress)

sadness <--> social interaction

(?)

[Adam Strange]

depression <--> a threat (stress)

sadness <--> social interaction

(?)

Anger is a medicine for melancholy.

[Petter]

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3990817/

"A well-balanced state of serotonin and norepinephrine leads to active socialization and normal sleep and appetite. A well-balanced state of serotonin and dopamine leads to satisfaction with achievement, normal sexual response, inhibition of overeating, and plasticity. A well-balanced state of norepinephrine and dopamine leads to newly seeking motivation.

An imbalance of these 3 neurotransmitters can lead to mood instability, unclear thoughts, and emotional instability. Imbalance of serotonin causes negative self-talk and rumination (self-reflect). An imbalance of norepinephrine can cause attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), obsessive and compulsive disorder (OCD), and depression. An imbalance of dopamine can cause hallucination, reward deficiency syndrome, additions, and anhedonia (inability to experience pleasure).

An unbalanced state of serotonin and norepinephrine can lead to anxiety and irritability. An unbalanced state of serotonin and dopamine can lead to aggressive dysphoria (an emotional state characterized by anxiety, depression, or unease). An unbalanced state of norepinephrine and dopamine can lead to impulsive talking and reward deficiency."



https://www.frontiersin.org/articles...017.00484/full

"The specific role of serotonin and its interplay with dopamine (DA) in adaptive, reward guided behavior as well as drug dependance, still remains elusive. Recently, novel methods allowed cell type specific anatomical, functional and interventional analyses of serotonergic and dopaminergic circuits, promising significant advancement in understanding their functional roles. Furthermore, it is increasingly recognized that co-release of neurotransmitters is functionally relevant, understanding of which is required in order to interpret results of pharmacological studies and their relationship to neural recordings. Here, we review recent animal studies employing such techniques with the aim to connect their results to effects observed in human pharmacological studies and subjective effects of drugs. It appears that the additive effect of serotonin and DA conveys significant reward related information and is subjectively highly euphorizing. Neither DA nor serotonin alone have such an effect. This coincides with optogenetically targeted recordings in mice, where the dopaminergic system codes reward prediction errors (PE), and the serotonergic system mainly unsigned PE. Overall, this pattern of results indicates that joint activity between both systems carries essential reward information and invites parallel investigation of both neurotransmitter systems."



https://www.frontiersin.org/articles...019.00334/full

"Overall DA and NA appear to have parallel effects on learning, brain state and reward processing."

"Reward or punishment related stimuli appear to activate catecholamine producing neurons in both LC and VTA."

[Petter]

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4060712/

"OXT administration is known to inhibit amygdala activity and results in a decrease of anxiety, whereas high amygdala activity and 5-HT dysregulation have been associated with increased anxiety. The present study reveals a previously unidentified form of interaction between these two systems in the human brain, i.e., the role of OXT in the inhibitory regulation of 5-HT signaling..."



https://my.clevelandclinic.org/healt...040-endorphins

"Endorphins and dopamine are both chemicals in your body that make you happy, but they function in different ways. Endorphins relieve pain naturally. When they attach to your brain’s reward centers (opiate receptors), dopamine is then released.

For example, endorphins will naturally help soothe a runner’s achy muscles. Then dopamine will be released, producing a runner’s high. Dopamine motivates you to do something over and over again. So endorphins and dopamine do work together."

[Petter]

basic emotions Jaak Panksepp.png

[Petter]

PANIC/separation (distress, grief) = a lack of CARE

sadness = a lack of PLAY/joy

fatalism ("love surprises") = a lack of SEEKING/expectancy

(?)

[Petter]

basic emotions Jaak Panksepp.png

Anger and fear are probably not opposite emotions.

[Petter]

relaxedness = a lack of FEAR (a threat)

calmness or satisfaction = a lack of RAGE/anger/frustration (an obstacle)

[Petter]

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7080740/

"Here we report that the rostral part of the nucleus accumbens (NAc) shell is strongly activated during the beginning of chocolate-induced cataplexy in orexin neuron-ablated mice."

"These results demonstrated that the rostral part of the NAc plays a crucial role in triggering cataplexy and hedonic orofacial movements. Since the NAc is also implicated in motivated behavior, we propose that the NAc is one of the key brain structures involved in happiness and is a driving force for positive emotion-related behaviors."

[Petter]

basic emotions Jaak Panksepp 2.jpg

[Petter]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannabinoid#Function

"The runner's high, the feeling of euphoria that sometimes accompanies aerobic exercise, has often been attributed to the release of endorphins, but newer research suggests that it might be due to endocannabinoids instead."



https://www.fundacion-canna.es/en/pu...ids-have-do-it

"The reason our cells have so many cannabinoid receptors is that we make our own cannabinoids, and they are vital to our overall well-being."

"Research into endocannabinoids provided insight into a brand new class of signaling molecules that seem to have a very broad spectrum of actions. They affect practically every cell type, tissue, and organ. The condition of our ECS also determines how we feel. Until this discovery, serotonin and endorphins were thought to be the “happy molecules”, known for their role in regulating and affecting emotional states. But the discovery of endocannabinoids revealed a new biochemical pathway to happiness. The name of the endocannabinoid anandamide itself (ananda is the Sanskrit word for “joy, bliss, happiness”) suggests its involvement in mood. Now research has also shown a strong connection between the serotonergic and endocannabinoid systems, pointing to a connection between the release of endocannabinoids and serotonin (Best and Regehr, 2008)."

"This proves a direct anatomical correlation between happiness and cannabinoids, as the brain regions sensitive to positive stimuli and stress have the highest density of cannabinoid receptors and are therefore most sensitive to endo- and phytocannabinoids."



https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27618739/

"Cannabis enables and enhances the subjective sense of well-being by stimulating the endocannabinoid system (ECS), which plays a key role in modulating the response to stress, reward, and their interactions."



https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anandamide

"The role of the endocannabinoid system on behavior and mood is still being researched. Both the CB1 and CB2 receptors (the bonding site of anandamide) seem to play a role in the identification of positive and negative interpretation of environment and setting. In animal models, anandamide plays a role in the interpretation of stimulus; specifically, optimism and pessimism in the presence of an ambiguous cue."

"This binding relationship of anandamide and the CB1/CB2 seems to play a role in neurotransmission of dopamine, serotonin, GABA, and glutamate."

"Anandamide injected directly into the forebrain reward-related brain structure nucleus accumbens enhances the pleasurable responses of rats to a rewarding sucrose taste, and enhances food intake as well. Increasing anandamide seems to increase the intrinsic value of food, not necessarily by stimulation of appetite or hunger."

[Petter]

anger

1. social/sexual dominance ---> blame

2. an obstacle

3. an attack

[Petter]

https://www.health.harvard.edu/stayi...tress-response

"When someone experiences a stressful event, the amygdala, an area of the brain that contributes to emotional processing, sends a distress signal to the hypothalamus. This area of the brain functions like a command center, communicating with the rest of the body through the nervous system so that the person has the energy to fight or flee."

"After the amygdala sends a distress signal, the hypothalamus activates the sympathetic nervous system by sending signals through the autonomic nerves to the adrenal glands. These glands respond by pumping the hormone epinephrine (also known as adrenaline) into the bloodstream."

[Petter]

"Fourth, frustration occurs when an individual continues to do an action in the expectation of a reward but does not actually receive that reward, and is associated with anger."

excitement (expectation of a reward) + an obstacle => anger

[Petter]

excitement (expectation of a reward) + not an obstacle => satisfaction

fear (expectation of punishment/pain) + an obstacle => relief

fear (expectation of punishment/pain) + not an obstacle => distress

[Petter]

​https://www.verywellhealth.com/dienc...natomy-5072810


https://www.researchgate.net/publica...l_interactions

"The somatic marker hypothesis posits that perceiving emotions entails reenacting markers of self emotions, in particular in the autonomous nervous system. Well studied in decision-making tasks, it has not been tested in a social cognitive neuroscience framework, and in particular for the automatic processing of positive emotions during natural interactions. Here, we address this question using a unique corpus of brain activity recorded during unconstrained conversations between participants and a human or a humanoid robot. fMRI recordings are used to test whether activity in the most important brain regions in relation to the autonomic system, the amygdala, hypothalamus and insula, is affected by the level of happiness expressed by the human and robot agents. Results indicate that for the hypothalamus and the insula, in particular the anterior agranular region strongly involved in processing social emotions, activity in the right hemisphere increases with the level of happiness expressed by the human, but not the robot. Results indicate that perceiving positive emotions in social interactions induces the local brain responses predicted by the somatic marker hypothesis, but only when the interacting agent is a real human."

[Petter]

Frustration is a basic emotion and hatred (or aggression) is a social emotion.

(?)

[Metamorph]

Basic emotions are so basic. I only have compound-complex emotions, like joie de vivré, schadenfreude, toska, kilig, hiraeth, saudade, and merak.

[Petter]

Robert Plutchik thought awe was a combination of surprise and fear. But it is possible to explain emotions such as awe and reverence without surprise.

"an overwhelming feeling of reverence, admiration, fear, etc., produced by that which is grand, sublime, extremely powerful, or the like: in awe of God; in awe of great political figures."

"Reverence involves a humbling of the self in respectful recognition of something perceived to be greater than the self"

[Petter]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admiration

"Sara Algoe and Jonathan Haidt include admiration in the category of other-praising emotions, alongside awe, elevation, and gratitude."

[Petter]

an optimistic outlook (feeling free) and a pessimistic outlook (feeling trapped)

1. euphoria and depression <--> opioids, endocannabinoids, orexin, dopamine


2. happiness and sadness <--> CARE and PANIC/separation ... oxytocin etc (see post #47)

[Petter]

happiness <--> meaningfulness

[Petter]

excitement and fear <--> serotonin 1 and dopamine

euphoria and depression <--> serotonin 2 and dopamine

(?)

[Petter]

PANIC/separation (distress, grief) = a lack of CARE

2. happiness and sadness <--> CARE and PANIC/separation

love = CARE

[Petter]

happiness

1. achieving long-term goals, satisfaction, meaningfulness

2. social hierarchy (laughing), feeling valuable to others ... i.e. a social emotion